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 Preliminaries for Starting Export Business

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The first and the foremost question you as a prospective exporter has to decide is about the kind of business organisation needed for the purpose. You have to take a crucial decision as to whether a business will be run as a sole proprietary concern or a partnership firm or a company. The proper selection of organisation will depend upon

Your ability to raise finance
Your capacity to bear the risk
Your desire to exercise control over the business 
Nature of regulatory framework applicable to you

If the size of the business is small, it would be advantageous to form a sole proprietary business organisation. It can be set up easily without much expenses and legal formalities. It is subject to only a few governmental regulations. However, the biggest disadvantage of #138;sole proprietary business is limited liability to raise funds which restricts its growth. Besides, the owner has unlimited personal liability. In order to avoid this disadvantage, it is advisable to form a partnership firm. The partnership firm can also be set up with ease and economy. Business can take benefit of the varied experiences and expertise of the partners. The liability of the partner though joint and several, is practically distributed amongst the various partners, despite the fact that the personal liability of the partner is unlimited. The major disadvantage of partnership form of business organisation is that conflict amongst the partners is a potential threat to the business. It will not be out of place to mention here that partnership firms are governed by the Indian Partnership Act,1932 and, therefore they should be form within the parameters laid down by the Act.

Exporters Manual and Documentation

Company is another form of business organisation,which has the advantage of distinct legal identity and limited liability to the shareholders. It can be a private limited company or a public limited company. A private limited company can be formed by just two persons subscribing to its share capital. However, the number of its shareholders cannot exceed fifty, public cannot be invited to subscribe to its capital and the member's right to transfer shares is restricted. On the other hand, a public limited company has a minimum of seven members. There is no limit to maximum number of its members. It can invite the public to subscribe to its capital and permit the transfer of shares. A public limited company offers enormous potential for growth because of access to substantial funds. The liquidity of investment is high because of easiness of transfer of shares. However, its formation can be recommended only when the size of the business is large. For small business, a sole proprietary concern or a partnership firm will be the most suitable form of business organisation.In case it is decided to incorporate a private limited company, the same is to be registered with the Registrar of Companies.

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You can chose any of the following modes of operations:

• Merchant Exporter i.e. buying the goods from the market or from a manufacturer and then selling them to foreign buyers
• Manufacturer Exporter i.e. manufacturing the goods yourself for export
• Sales Agent/Commission Agent/Indenting Agent i.e. acting on behalf of the seller and charging commission
• Buying Agent i.e. acting on behalf of the buyer and charging commission

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Naming the Business

Whatever form of business organisation has been finally decided, naming the business is an essential task for every exporter. The name and style should be attractive, short and meaningful. Simple and attractive name indicating the nature of business is ideal. The office should be located preferably in a commercial complex, in clean and workable surroundings. The letter head should be simple and superb providing information concerning H.O., branches, cable address, telephone number, fax number, banker's name and address etc. Pick up a beautiful trade name and logo which reinforces your organisation's name and image. Open a current account in the name of the organisation in whose name you intend to export. It is advisable to open the account with a bank which is authorised to deal in Foreign Exchange.

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Selecting the Company

Carefully select the product to be exported. For proper selection of product, study the trends of export of different items from India. The selected product must be in demand in the countries where it is to be exported. It should be possible to procure or manufacture the selected product at most economic cost so that it can be competitively priced. It should also be available in sufficient quantity and it should be possible to supply it repeatedly and regularly. Besides, while selecting the product, it has to be ensured that you are conversant with government policy and regulations in respect of product selected for export. You should also know import regulations in respect of such commodities by the importing countries. It would be preferable if you have previous knowledge and experience of commodities selected by you for export. A non-technical person should avoid in dealing in high tech products.

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Making effective Business Correspondence

You should recognise the importance of business correspondence as it is an introduction with the buyer in proxy which may clinch his response according to the impression created by the correspondence. For creating a very favorable and excellent impression, you must use a beautiful letter head on airmail paper and a good envelope, nicely printed, giving fully particulars of your firm's name, telephone, telex and fax number etc. Your language should be polite, soft, brief and to the point, giving a very clear picture of the subject to be put before the customer. Letters should be typed/ computer typed set, preferably in the language of the importing country. Also make sure that the full and correct address is written and the envelope is duly stamped. It should also be borne in mind that the aim of your business correspondence is not only to clinch the buyer's order but also to obtain the information on the following:

The specifications of the products already in use in the importing country.
Whether your product meets the above specifications. If not, Whether your specifications offer any distinct advantages in terms of prices, quality, after-sales service, etc.
The import policy prevailing in the buyer's country (e.g. whether there is any import licensing, any restrictions on remittances, any pre-qualification for product/supplier, etc.)
The trade practices in the buyers' country with special reference to your product, information like whether importers import and distribute the product/high sea sales, whether agent is required to book orders from actual users etc.
In case your item requires after sales service, the manner in which it can be offered.
The prices at which your product sells in the retail/wholesale market, the duty structure and any other cost element to arrive at the landed cost. Information on the margins at which the product is sold. This information will help you in evolving a pricing strategy.
Study of various market segments viz. Importers, Supermarkets, Government Suppliers, Institutional Sales, Tenders, Suppliers, etc.
The various factors that rule the market viz. Quality, Price, Delivery, Brand Name, Credit Terms, etc.
Role of advertising and publicity and reference to the product and the country.

A specimen export letter is given below :

Specimen of Introductory Letter to International Importers

Ref: export/aky2000/ 15th Jan,2001

The Manager (Purchase)

M/s. Exporter Ltd.

.........................

.........................

(China)

Dear Sir,

We are exporters of a wide variety of items including .......... for the last ten years. Our major buyers are ......... in .......... We are one of the registered export houses in India. We represent .......... the leading manufacturers of these items in India. These items are produced in collaboration with .........., the world famous company. We follow the ISI specifications. We believe that your company imports the items we export. We are enclosing herewith a copy of our brochure and price list for your perusal. We shall be glad to send you detailed literature/ samples of items that may be of interests to you.

Yours sincerely,

For Exporter Ltd.

Manager (Marketing)

Encl:

Comments :

• The text can be suitably amended with reference to the manufacturing activity or/items dealt in by the exporter.

• Where the manufacturing is not in collaboration with a foreign company, it need not be referred to.

• Product literature (of the buyer's interest) and price list should invariably be sent along with the letter.

• The price list should categorically indicate whether the prices are f.o.b., & C&f or c.i.f. etc. However, discount need not be indicated in the price list.

• The profile about your company should generally include the following matters:

  • Company's name and address /Telex /Telephone /Cable /Fax/Email/ Date of establishment
  • Export Executives
  • Status: Partnership/ Company (Pvt. Ltd./Pub.Ltd) Govt.(Semi-Govt.) 
  • Bank Reference
  • Exporting Since
  • Value of Assets
  • No. of Employees/ Manufacturing/ Sales/ Administration
  • Foreign Offices/Representatives, if any
  • Exporter/ Manufacturer/ Agent
  • Main Line
  • Technical Collaboration
  • Standards/Specification followed
  • Major Buyers- In India; Abroad

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Selecting the markets

Target markets should be selected after careful consideration of various factors like political embargo, scope of exporter's selected product, demand stability, preferential treatment to products from developing countries, market penetration by competitive countries and products, distance of potential market, transport problems, language problems, tariff and non-tariff barriers, distribution infrastructure, size of demand in the market, expected life span of market and product requirements, sales and distribution channels. For this purpose you should collect adequate market information before selecting one or more target markets. The information can be collected from various sources like Export Promotion Council (EPCs)/Commodity Boards, Federation of Indian Export Organisation, (FIEO), Indian Institute of Foreign Trade (IIFT), Indian Trade Promotion Organisation (ITPO), Indian Embassies Abroad, Foreign Embassies in India, Import Promotion Institutions Abroad, Overseas Chambers of Commerce and Industries, Various Directories, Journals, Market Survey Reports

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Selecting prospective Buyers

You can collect addresses of the prospective buyers of the commodity from the following sources:

• Enquiries from friends and relatives or other acquaintances residing in foreign countries.

• Visiting/ participating in International Trade Fairs and Exhibitions in India and abroad.

• Contact with the Export Promotion Councils, Commodity Boards and other Government Agencies. List given in Appendix 4 of this book).

• Consulting International Yellow Pages (A Publication from New York by Dun & Bradstreet, USA or other Yellow Pages of different countries like Japan, Dubai Etc.)

• Collecting addresses from various Private Indian Publications Directories available on cost at Jain Book Agency,C-9, Connaught Place, New Delhi-1. (PH. 3355686, Fax.3731117).

• Collecting information from International Trade Directories/ Journals/periodicals available in the libraries of Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, IIFT, EPCs, ITPO etc. A list of selected trade directories published abroad is given in Appendix 5 of this book.

• Making contacts with Trade Representatives of Overseas Govt. in India and Indian Trade and Other Representatives/ International Trade Development Authorities abroad. A list of international trade development authorities abroad like Foreign Chambers of Commerce etc. is given in Nabhi's EXPORTERS MANUAL AND DOCUMENTATION.

• Reading biweekly, fortnightly, monthly bulletins such as Indian Trade Journal, Export Service Bulletin, Bulletins and Magazines issued and published by Federation of Exporters' Organisations, ITPO, EPCs, Commodity Boards and other allied agencies. A list of Indian Trade Periodicals containing names and addresses of importers is given in Appendix 6 of this book.

• Visiting Embassies, Consulates etc. of other countries and taking note of addresses of importers for products proposed to be exported.

• Advertising in newspapers having overseas editions and other foreign newspapers and magazines etc.

• Consulting ITPO,IIFT,etc.

• Contacting authorised dealers in foreign exchange with whom exporter is maintaining bank account.

Overseas importers can be contacted or informed about the products by the following methods:

• By corresponding and sending brochures and product literature to prospective overseas buyers.

• By undertaking trips to foreign markets and establishing personal rapport with overseas buyers. The number of trips will depend on your budget and resources. But it is essential forlong-term success in international marketing to establish personal rapport. Foreign trip will provide first-hand information regarding the market, overseas customers, their requirement, taste, preference and better out communication of the merits of exporters' products.

• Participation in buyer-seller meets and meeting the members of foreign delegation invited by Export Promotion Councils concerned.

• Participation in international trade fairs, seminars.

• Advertisement and publicity in overseas reputed newspapers and magazines. Facilities of free publicity can be availed from Import Development Centres.

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Selecting channels of distribution

The following channels of distribution are generally utilised while exporting to overseas markets :

• Exports through Export Consortia

• Export through Canalising Agencies

• Export through Other Established Merchant Exporters or Export Houses, or Trading Houses

• Direct Exports

• Export through Overseas Sales Agencies

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Negotiating with Prospective Buyers

Whatever the channel of distribution for exporting to the overseas countries is proposed to be is utilized, it is essential that the exporters should possess the necessary skill for negotiating with the overseas channels of distribution. The ability to negotiate effectively is needed for discussion with importers or trade agents. While conducting business negotiations, the prospective exporter should avoid conflict, controversy and criticism vis-à-vis the other party. During conversation the attitude should be to communicate effectively. There should be coherence, creativity, compromise, concessions, commonality, consensus, commitment and compensation in business negotiations. The general problem you may face is about pricing. The buyer's contention is that prices are too high. It should be noted that though the price is only one of the many issues that are discussed during business negotiations, it influences the entire negotiating process. Since this is the most sensitive issue in business negotiations, it should be tactfully postponed until all the issues have been discussed and mutually agreed upon. As far as the price is concerned, you should try to determine the buyer's real interest in the product from the outset, only then a suitable counter proposal should be presented. It should also be remembered that the buyer may request modifications in presentation of the product. You should show the willingness to meet such request, if possible, provided that it will result in profitable export business. Price being the most important sales tool, it has to be properly developed and presented.

Therefore, in order to create a favorable impression, minimize costly errors and generate repeated business. The following points should be kept in mind while preparing the price list:

Submit a typewritten list, printed on the regular bond paper and laid out simply and clearly (with at least an inch between columns and between groupings)
Prominently indicate the name of your company, its full address, telephone and fax numbers, including the country and city codes.
Fully describe the items being quoted.
Group the items logically( i.e. all the fabrics together, all the made-up together etc.).
Specify whether shipped by sea or by air, f.o.b. or c.i.f. and to what port.
Quote exact amount and not rounded-off figures.
Mention the dates upto which the prices quoted will remain valid.
Where there is an internal reference number which must be quoted, to keep it short (the buyer has no interest in this detail and the more complex it is, the greater is the risk of error).

As regards the factors determining your price, please refer to  'EXPORT PRICING AND COSTING' 

One main point regarding export pricing is that while negotiating with overseas buyer, you may not remember the cost of a product. It may also be difficult for you to remember the profit margin built in various prices quoted by you. A clear jotting of this information is not free from the risk of being leaked out to the competitors or to the overseas buyers.

Some coding is, therefore, essential for the prices quoted by you so that at any stage/point of time, you can always utilise the information, enabling you to profitably negotiate with the overseas buyer. This can be done by assigning codes to the cost price.

For assigning codes to the cost price, you may select an English password consisting of 10 separate letters, each letter to represent a numerical figure. For example: 'CRAZY MOUTH' is the password selected by you, where C=1, R=2, A=3, Z=4, Y=5, M=6, O=7, U=8, T=9, H=0. This password can be successfully used for recognising various items of exports and their varieties.

Thus, a brass candle stand which is being quoted at Rs. 100(sale price) but whose cost price to you is Rs 25.50 will be coded as item number 'RYYH' and then assigned with a running serial number to make it more fascinating. You can decode the word 'RYYH' to write as Rs 25.50 so as to get an idea of difference between the Sale Price and the Cost Price, which will provide you the range within which you can negotiate with overseas buyers.

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You should not be happy merely on receiving an export order. You should first acknowledge the export order, and then proceed to examine carefully in respect of items, specification, preshipment inspection, payment conditions, special packaging, labeling and marketing requirements, shipment and delivery date, marine insurance, documentation etc. if you are satisfied on these aspects, a formal confirmation should be sent to the buyer, otherwise clarification should be sought from the buyer before confirming the order. After confirmation of the export order immediate steps should be taken for procurement/manufacture of the export goods. In the meanwhile, you should proceed to enter into a formal export contract with the overseas buyer.

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In order to avoid disputes, it is necessary to enter into an export contract with the overseas buyer. For this purpose, export contract should be carefully drafted incorporating comprehensive but in precise terms, all relevant and important conditions of the trade deal.

There should not be any ambiguity regarding the exact specifications of goods and terms of sale including export price, mode of payment, storage and distribution methods, type of packaging, port of shipment, delivery schedule etc.

The different aspects of an export contract are enumerated as under :

Product, Standards and Specifications
Quantity
Inspection
Total Value of Contract
Terms of Delivery
Taxes, Duties and Charges
Period of Delivery/Shipment
Packing, Labeling and Marking
Terms of Payment-- Amount/Mode & Currency
Discounts and Commissions
Licenses and Permits
Insurance
Documentary Requirements
Guarantee
Force Majeure of Excuse for Non-performance of contract
Remedies
Arbitration It will not be out of place to mention here the importance of arbitration clause in an export contract

Court proceedings do not offer a satisfactory method for settlement of commercial disputes, as they involve inevitable delays, costs and technicalities. On the other hand, arbitration provides an economic, expeditious and informal remedy for settlement of commercial disputes. Arbitration proceedings are conducted in privacy and the awards are kept confidential. The Arbitrator is usually an expert in the subject matter of the dispute. The dates for arbitration meetings are fixed with the convenience of all concerned. Thus, arbitration is the most suitable way for settlements of commercial disputes and it may invariably be used by businessmen in their commercial dealings.

The Indian Council of Arbitration Federation House, Tansen Marg, New Delhi.            (Ph. 3319251 Fax:3320714) is a specialized arbitration institution providing arbitration facilities for all types of domestic or international commercial disputes. You should use their services as far a possible.

BRIEF SPECIMEN CONTRACT FORM FOR SALE PURCHASE TRANSACTIONS

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS

I.  Name and address of the parties.......(state correct appellation and complete address of the parties)

II. We, the above named parties have entered into this contract for the sale/purchase, etc. ....... (state briefly the purpose of the contract) on this ........(date) at ........(place)..... subject to the following terms and conditions:

1. Goods ....................................................

2. Quantity .................................................Quality.................................................. (Describe the quantity, quality and the other specifications of the goods precisely as per the agreement. An agency for inspection/certification of quality and/or quantity may also be stipulated).

3. Price................................................ Mode of payment ...........................................(Quote the price, terms, i.e. ex-works/FOB(free on board) CIF(Cost, Insurance & Freight) etc. in the currency agreed upon and describe the mode of payment i.e. payment against L/C(letter of credit)/DA (document against acceptance) /D/P(document against payment)etc. It is also desirable to mention the exchange rate.)

4. Shipment................................. ................(Specify date of delivery and the maximum period upto which delivery could be delayed and for which reasons, port of shipment and delivery should be mentioned).

5. Packing and marking............... ........................(Requirements to be specified precisely)

6. Insurance .................................................(State the type of insurance cover required, i.e. FPA(free from particular average)/WA (with average)/ All Risks, etc. State also the party responsible for insurance)

7. Brokerage/Commission ........(if any payable may be mentioned)

8. Passing of the property and of risk. The property or ownership of the goods and the risk shall finally pass to the buyer at such stage as the parties may agree, i.e. when the goods are delivered at the seller's place of work/pass the ship's rails/are covered by insurance etc. as per agreed terms).

Arbitration

Arbitration clause recommended by the Indian Council of Arbitration: "All disputes or differences whatsoever arising between the parties out of relating to the construction, meaning and operation or effect of this contract or the breach thereof shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the rules of the arbitration of the Indian Council of Arbitration and the award made in pursuance thereof shall be binding on the parties."(or any other arbitration clause that may be agreed upon between the parties). 3.Any other special condition, prevalent in or relevant to the particular line of trade or transaction, may also be specified.

Sd/-Seller

Sd/-Buyer

Notes: The above specimen contract form, drawn up in brief essentials, is meant for simple small scale transactions and is intended to draw the attention of the parties to important aspects of the trade deal in drafting the contract. The parties are free to add to or modify the terms as per the peculiar nature of their trade transaction. They may also consult with advantage, experienced commercial or arbitration bodies for the purpose or study published literature on the subject. The use of the arbitration clauses in commercial contracts is becoming increasingly commom, particularly in export-import transactions, with a view to promoting smooth and swift flow of business. The Indian Council of Arbitration (ICA) which is partly founded by the Government of India, provides comprehensive institutional arbitration service to all government departments and public undertakings as well as private traders, exporters and importers in India for amicable and quick settlement of all types of commercial disputes. It has been suggested by the Ministry of Commerce that all commercial organisations should make use of the arbitration clause of the Council in their commercial contracts with Indian and foreign parties.

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Export Pricing and Costing

Export pricing should be differentiated from export costing. Price is what we offer to the customer.Cost is the price that we pay/incur for the product. Price includes our profit margin, cost includes only expenses we have incurred. Export pricing is the most important tool for promoting sales and facing international competition. The price has to be realistically worked out taking into consideration all export benefits and expenses. However, there is no fixed formula for successful export pricing. It will differ from exporter to exporter depending upon whether the exporter is a merchant exporter or a manufacturer exporter or exporting through a canalising agency. You should also assess the strength of your competitor and anticipate the move of the competitor in the market. Pricing strategies will depend on various circumstantial situations. You can still be competitive with higher prices but with better delivery package or other advantages.

Your prices will be determined by the following factors:

Range of products offered
Prompt deliveries and continuity in supply
After-sales service in products like machine tools, consumer durables
Product differentiation and brand image
Frequency of purchase
Presumed relationship between quality and price
Specialty value goods and gift items
Credit offered
Preference or prejudice for products originating from a particular source
Aggressive marketing and sales promotion
Prompt acceptance and settlement of claims
Unique value goods and gift items

Export Costing is basically Cost Accountant's job. It consists of fixed cost and variable cost comprising various elements. It is advisable to prepare an export costing sheet for every export product. For the format of the export costing sheet and other relevant details refer to Nabhi's EXPORTERS MANUAL AND DOCUMENTATION.As regards quoting the prices to the overseas buyer, the same are quoted in the following internationally accepted terms:

Ex-Works:'Ex-works' means that your responsibility is to make goods available to the buyer at works or factory. The full cost and risk involved in bringing the goods from this place to the desired destination will be borne by the buyer. This term thus represents the minimum obligation for you. It is mostly used for sale of plantation commodities such as tea, coffee and cocoa.

Free on Rail(FOR) : Free on Truck(FOT):These terms are used when the goods are to be carried by rail, but they are also used for road transport. Your obligations are fulfilled when the goods are delivered to the carrier.

Free Alongside Ship (FAS):Once the goods have been placed alongside the ship, your obligations are fulfilled and the buyer notified. The buyer has to contract with the sea carrier for the carriage of the goods to the destination and pay the freight. The buyer has to bear all costs and risks of loss or damage to the goods hereafter.

Free on Board (FOB):Your responsibility ends the moment the contracted goods are placed on board the ship, free of cost to the buyer at a port of shipment named in the sales contract. 'On board' means that a 'Received for Shipment' B/L (Bill of Lading) is not sufficient. Such B/L if issued must be converted into 'Shipped on Board B/L' by using the stamp 'Shipped on Board' and must bear signature of the carrier or his authorised representative together with date on which the goods were 'boarded'.

Cost and Freight (C&F):You must on your own risk and not as an agent of the buyer, contract for the carriage of the goods to the port of destination named in the sale contract and pay the freight. This being a shipment contract, the point of delivery is fixed to the ship's rail and the risk of loss or of damage to the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer at that very point. As will be seen though you bear the cost of carriage to the named destination, the risk is already transferred to the buyer at the port of shipment itself.

Cost Insurance Freight (CIF):The term is basically the same as C&F, but with the addition that you have to obtain insurance at your cost against the risks of loss or damage to the goods during the carriage.

Freight or Carriage Paid (DCP):While C&F is used for goods which are to be carried by sea, the term "DCP" is used for land transport only, including national and international transport by road, rail and inland waterways. You have to contract for the carriage of the goods to the agreed destination named in the contract of the sale and pay freight. Your obligations are fulfilled when the goods are delivered to the first carrier and not beyond. In case the buyer desires you to insure the goods till the destination, he would add 'including insurance' before the word 'Paid in Freight' or 'Carriage Paid to'.

EXS/EX-Ship:This is an arrival contract and means that you make the goods available to the buyer in the ship at the named port of destination as per sales contract. You have to bear the full cost and risk involved in bringing the goods there. Your obligation is fulfilled before the customs border of the foreign country and it is for the buyer to obtain necessary import license at his own risk and expense.

EXQ/Ex-Quay:Ex-Quay means that you make the goods available to the buyer at a named quay. As in the term 'Ex-Ship' the points of division of costs and risks coincide, but they have now been moved one step further -- from the ship into the quay or wharf i.e. after crossing the customs border at destination. Therefore, in addition to arranging for carriage and paying freight and insurance you have to bear the cost of unloading the goods from the ship.

Delivered at Frontier (DAF):The term is primarily intended to be used when the goods are to be carried by rail or road. Your obligations are fulfilled when the goods have arrived at the frontier, but before the 'Customs border' of the country named in the sales contract.

Delivery Duty Paid (DDP):This term may be used irrespective of the type of transport involved and denotes your maximum obligation as opposed to 'Ex-Works'. You have not fulfilled his obligation till such time that the goods are made available at his risk and cost to the buyer at his premises or any other named destination. In the latter case necessary documents (e.g. transport document or Warehouse Warrant) will have to be made available to the buyer to enable him to take delivery of goods. The term 'duty' includes taxes, fees and charges.Therefore, the obligation to pay VAT (Value Added Tax) levied upon importation will fall upon you. It is, therefore, advisable to use 'exclusive of VAT' after the words 'duty paid'.

FAO/FOB Airport:'FOB Airport' is based on the same main principle as the ordinary FOB term. You fulfill your obligation by delivering the goods to the air carrier at the airport of departure. Without the buyer's approval delivery at a town terminal outside the airport is not sufficient, your obligations with respect to costs and risks do not extend to the arrival of the goods at the destination.

Free Carrier (Named Point) FRC:The term has been designed particularly to meet the requirements of modern transport like 'multi-modal' transport as container or 'roll-on-roll-off' traffic by trailers and ferries. The principles on which the term is based is same as applicable to FOB except that the seller or the exporter fulfills his obligations when he delivers the goods into the custody of the carrier at the named point.

Freight Carriage and Insurance Paid (CIP):The term is similar to 'Freight or Carriage Paid to'. However, in case of CIP you have additionally to procure transport insurance against the risk of loss or damage to the goods during the carriage. You contract with the insurer and pay the insurance premium.

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While selling abroad, you may undergo the following risks:

(i) Credit risk (ii) Currency risk  (iii) Carriage risk   (iv) Country risk

These risks can be insured to a great extent by taking appropriate steps. Credit risk against the buyer can be covered by insisting upon an irrevocable letter of credit from the overseas buyer. An appropriate policy from Export Credit and Guarantee Corporation of India Ltd. can also be obtained for this purpose. Country risks are also covered by the ECGC. As regards currency risk, i.e. possible loss due to adverse fluctuation in exchange rate, You should obtain forward cover from your bank authorised to deal in foreign exchange. Alternatively, you should obtain export order in Indian rupee. Carriage risk, i.e. possible loss of cargo in transit can be covered by taking a marine insurance policy from the general insurance companies.

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